Islamic Empires and European power

Today was about the development and nature of the Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal empires. At this time there was a coexistance of the old Eurasian models of land based empires and the new maritime empires, but there was to be an undercutting of these Eurasian empires through internal pressures and the rise of Europe - something that has been described as a "hollowing out" of the Islamic empires.

Islamic empires and the early modern world

Between 1500 and 1800, central and southern Eurasia was dominated by three great Islamic empires: Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal. These contiguous empires emerged out of political and cultural integration achieved by the Mongols and this was further reinforced by their common Muslim faith, which was one of profound cultural continuity due to institutions such as a common language (Arabic) and a common text (the Quran). These empires were dominated by Khans (great warrior leaders) and were dependent on cavalry. They mark powerful continuities with Mongol traditions of empire building and their power until c19th indicates persistence of these long-established Eurasian traditions. Their economic power rested on dominance of the long-distance trade routes that connected South and east Asia to Europe. As 'gunpowder' empires, their rapid rise reflected their precocious adaptation of Chinese technology, which is best seen in the Ottoman conquests from 1420, including Constantinople (1453), in which it was men armed with longbows and sometimes crossbows against men with cannons and muskets. The power of these states and their formidable military establishments forestalled European expansion to the east, in fact, the European thrust into the Americas can be seen as a 'flight from Islam'. Despite conflicts between Ottomans and Safavids, there were many powerful cultural continuities between these empires. Pilgrimage routes and scholarly networks integrated these three empires.

Ottomans

There was a renewed expansion of Ottoman empire in the 16th century into north Africa (Egypt 1516) and the Balkans (Belgrade 1521). Due to their commercial power, Ottomans became important power brokers in Europe: e.g. funding an anti-Habsburg alliance of France, Germany and England, and became profoundly emboiled in European history. Beacuse the empire incorporated a diverse array of territories and communities, combining substantial Muslim, Christian and Jewish populations, they were very tolerant of religious difference (The powerful eunuch scholar Hasan Aga was born Samson Rowley in Greath Yarmouth. There were special positions in the bureaucracy reserved for Christians. Its support of merchant communities, and its powerful army and large navy meant that it controlled Turkey, Mesopotamia and Egypt through the 19th century.

Safavids

The Safavid dynasty (1501-722), emerged out of a popular Islamic movement formulated by Safi al-Din (152-1334) in opposition to Mongols. But while the empire that emerged in the 16th century was profoundly shaped by Islam, it also owed much to Mongol administrational structures and military traditions. It was also extremely cosmipolitan, the economy flourished with Chinese craftsmen playing a central role in burgeoning silk, porcelain and carpet production, while military power under Shah Abbas (1588-1629) was dependent on heavily-armed slave armies (from North Africa). They were ultimately weakened, however, by an ongoing conflict with the Sunni Ottoman empire: the Safavid elite embraced Shi'ite traditions, persecuting both Sufi and Sunni groups.

Mughals

This dynasty was founded by Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur, a Chaghatai Turkish ruler and a descendant of Timur (Tamerlane) and Chinggis (Genghis) Khan. In 1526 Babur's forces crossed the Khyber Pass from Afghanistan into India and won a decisive battle over Ibrahim Lodi, the Afghan ruler of north India, at Panipat near Delhi. Delhi and Agra were seized, and Agra was established as the capital. The empire was based on military strength, a skilled cavalry and early adoption of matchlock muskets and cannons. The courtly culture draws heavily on Turkish & Central Asian traditions, in fact the court language was initially Turkic and the court had close ties with the wider Islamic world. Under Akbar (1556-1605), Jahangir (1605-1627), and Shah Jahan (1627-1658), Mughal power extended and consolidated over most of South Asia. It was a period of great commercial prosperity, in part because of the silver and gold that began to flow into India from European merchants desperate for spices and textiles. By nature "incorporationist", Akbar repealed jizya (a tax on non-muslims), and made effective use of marriage alliances (e.g. with Rajputs) and through the mansabdari system, created a multi-ethnic administrational and military establishment in which potential rivals were incorporated into the empire.

Relations with Europe

Europeans had a strong interest in the potential of Asia's riches, but following the loss of Constantinople to Turks in 1453, the direct overland route to Asia was blocked. Dias opened a new eastward route around Cape of Good Hope in 1487, providing a direct sea route to the eastern markets. In May 20th, 1498 Vasco da Gama reached Calicut, on the Malabar Coast, one of major spice ports in Asia, signalling the beginning of a new age of Asian-European trade. Indians had had frequent contact with light-skinned groups prior to the arrival of Europeans, especially Jewish and Armenian traders, and they also had a knowledge of Christianity because of the presence of sizable Syrian Christian populations and so there was little initial shock at the Portuguese. They were largely seen as a rather uncouth addition to the complex mix of diverse trading communities. The Mughals were initially unconcerned with Europeans, in 1619 Jahangir allowed the EIC to trade in three key ports or 'factories', Madras, Calcutta and Bombay. However, as result of insatiable European demand, the power of European merchants grew steadily from 1650 to 1750.

Crisis of authority

From 1707 the central authority in Delhi was weakened by 3 factors:

• Factionalism - increasing competition and conflict in Mughal court at Delhi.
• The rise of regional kingdoms (in part precipitated by Aurangzeb's retreat from the tolerant policies of Akbar: 1658-1707) - Marathas in the west and the Sikhs in the north.
• External threats - the Afghans, the French, and the EIC.

The Ottomans and Safavids experienced a similar "hollowing out" of authority as they struggled to control expansive, multi-ethnic empires and limit the effects of factionalism. It is this crisis in centralized authority that provides the key context for the rise of European power in central Eurasia and the growing European dominance of the trading world of Asia.