Age of Revolutions

The theme today was new technologies, new state practices and political changes within the Atlantic world. This was the emergence of key structures of modernity and the nature of the state.

The Scientific revolution and its limits

European knowledges had, in reality, fallen significantly behind other traditions during medieval period and the Renaissance merely marked a catching up on the Islamic world and China. There were advances in scientific knowledge from the seventeenth century, people like Copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler began to undercut the dominance of the Church over European understandings of the world. However, magic, astrology and most of all, Christianity remained central to European thought. These were people that believed in ghosts, fairies and witches, and this belief was only questioned by the intellectuals. Long-distance trade, imperial expansion and missionary activity created greater interest in human variation and the study of human variation, ethnology, flourishes during the 18th century. This is because encounters with different cultures raised questions about the nature of man in its purist and most elemental form, calling into question the presumption that Europeans are the norm. The 'Discovery' of new peoples initiated debates over Creation, the relationship between distinct peoples and the path of history itself. The key impact of 'scientific revolution' come in utilitarian domains, however, especially agriculture and warfare, where seeds of 'industrial revolution' were sown.

Military revolution

The key domain where technological change had a direct and immediate effect was in warfare. In 1500 European armies remained small and were poorly armed, relying heavily on archers and cavalry: there was a limited use of gunpowder and artillery. The major innovation was the use of the musket, which effectively ended medieval warfare as a musketball could penetrate plate armour from 120 yards. But because of slow fire-rate, musket warfare depended on larger armies and careful co-ordination of volley-fire, prompting growth of armies and more extensive training.This signalled the development of sophisticated armies and professionalization. These new technologies and military systems were crucial within the 17th and 18th centuries as Europe was wracked by religious conflict and ongoing wars between states. The size, technological resources and discipline of a nation's military was central to its international influence: the 2nd half of the 17th century witnessed rise of British and French military power and rapid waning of Iberian powers. The increased size and professionalization of armies reflected general expansion of the roles and powers of European states: centralized governments became increasingly powerful and levied higher taxes to support expanded functions. This underpinned the 'bureaucratic revolution'.

Political revolutions: America

This expansion of state activity, especially to levy taxes, caused widespread unease. Many Europeans believed that state-power was frequently used to serve corrupt ends; to prop up monarchies and courtly elites. Taxation and the power of the British state over its American colonies underpinned the American Revolution: the key issues were the taxation of sugar and stamps (1764-5), tea (1773) and the limited opportunities for colonials to participate in government. Armed conflict broke out in April 1775 and in 1776 there was the American Declaration of Independence. The turning point in the war was France's support from February 1778, showing this was part of a much wider global conflict. French support of America wasn't driven by ideals of democracy, but a desire to hurt Britain wherever possible and advance their global ambitions. In 1788 the Constitution came into effect and in 1789 George Washington became the first President. This revolution profoundly reconfigured Atlantic World. USA, now independent, was able to draw upon European heritage and the Atlantic economy, but was free of the massive peasantry which constrained Eurasian societies.

Political Revolutions: France and Haiti

The power of the print culture that integrated the intellectual world of the Atlantic meant that the American Constitution and revolutionary writing circulated widely. New democratic ideals were widely debated in France especially, these ideas spread widely through print and demobilised soldiers. In France on the 5th May, 1789 the Estates General met against backdrop of failed harvest, cattle disease and recession: it declared itself a national assembly. Over the next 2 years it abolished the feudal system, censorship, nationalized church lands and created a centralized system of representative government. In 1792 there was an immense crisis fomented by Parisian revolt; this revolt created a new Convention. In 1793 the Convention voted for the execution of the king, marking the beginning of the Terror, as the Convention used coercive means to ensure survival of the Revolution. Anyone who had been powerful or was thought to be sympathetic to the old regime got the chop. These revolutions were transatlantic in nature, underlined by the Saint-Dominque (Haiti) slave rebellion in 1791. After the resulting Civil War, France abolished slavery in 1794. By 1801, under Toussaint L'Ouverture, Haiti became independent. Over the next century, much of central and South America followed suit. Some Maori saw Haiti as the model that NZ should take, showing the truly global impact of these ideas.